As well as other features and bugfixes.
tolua is a tool that greatly simplifies the integration of C/C++ code with Lua. Based on a cleaned header file (or extracts from real header files), tolua automatically generates the binding code to access C/C++ features from Lua. Using Lua API and tag method facilities, tolua maps C/C++ constants, external variables, functions, classes, and methods to Lua.
This manual is for tolua++ version 1.0 and is implemented upon Lua 5.0 and based on tolua 5.0. See Compatibility for details on switching from older versions.
The sections below describe how to use tolua. Please contact us with bug reports, suggestions, and comments.
Let's start with some examples. If we specify as input the following C-like header file to tolua:
#define FALSE 0 #define TRUE 1 enum { POINT = 100, LINE, POLYGON }
Object* createObejct (int type); void drawObject (Object* obj, double red, double green, double blue); int isSelected (Object* obj);A C file that binds such a code to Lua is automatically generated. Therefore, in Lua code, we can access the C code, writing, for instance:
... myLine = createObject(LINE) ... if isSelected(myLine) == TRUE then drawObject(myLine, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0); else drawObject(myLine, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0); end ...Also, consider a C++-like header file:
#define FALSE 0 #define TRUE 1
class Shape { void draw (void); void draw (double red, double green, double blue); int isSelected (void); };
class Line : public Shape { Line (double x1, double y1, double x2, double y2); ~Line (void); };If this file is used as input to tolua, a C++ file is automatically generated proving access to such a code from Lua. Therefore, it would be valid to write Lua statements like:
... myLine = Line:new (0,0,1,1) ... if myLine:isSelected() == TRUE then myLine:draw(1.0,0.0,0.0) else myLine:draw() end ... myLine:delete() ...The package file (usually with extension .pkg) passed to tolua is not the real C/C++ header file, but a cleaned version of it. tolua does not implement a complete parse to interpret C/C++ code, but it understands a few declarations that are used to describe the features that are to be exported to Lua. Regular header files can be included into packages files; tolua will extract the code specified by the user to parse from the header (see Basic Concepts).
tolua -o myfile.c myfile.pkg
The generated code must be compiled and linked with the application to provide the desired access from Lua. Each parsed file represents a package being exported to Lua. By default, the package name is the input file root name (myfile in the example). The user can specify a different name for the package:
tolua -n pkgname -o myfile.c myfile.pkg
The package should also be explicitly initialized. To initialize the package from our C/C++ code, we must declare and call the initialization function. The initialization function is defined as
int tolua_pkgname_open (void);
where pkgname represents the name of the package being bound. If we are using C++, we can opt for automatic initialization:
tolua -a -n pkgname -o myfile.c myfile.pkg
In that case, the initialization function is automatically called. However, if we are planning to use multiple Lua states, automatic initialization does not work, because the order static variables are initialized in C++ is not defined.
Optionally, the prototype of the open function can be outputted to a header file, which name is given by the -H option.
The binding code generated by tolua uses a set of functions defined in the tolua library. Thus, this library also has to be linked with the application. The file tolua.h is also necessary to compile the generated code.
An application can use tolua object oriented framework (see exported utility functions) without binding any package. In that case, the application must call tolua initialization function (this function is called by any package file initialization function):
int tolua_open (void);
$pfile "include_file"
A package file may also include regular C/C++ header files, using the hfile or cfile directive:
$cfile "example.h"
In wich case, tolua will extract the code enclosed between tolua_begin and tolua_end, or or tolua_export for a single line. Consider this C++ header as example:
#ifndef EXAMPLE_H #define EXAMPLE_H class Example { // tolua_export private: string name; int number; public: void set_number(int number); //tolua_begin string get_name(); int get_number(); }; // tolua_end #endif
In this case, the code that's not supported by tolua (the private part of the class), along with the function set_number is left outside of the package that includes this header.
Finally, lua files can be included on a package file, using $lfile:
$lfile "example.lua"
Functions in C/C++ can also manipulate Lua objects explicitly. Thus lua_Object is also considered a basic type. In this case, any Lua value matches it.
New on tolua++: The C++ type string is also considered a basic type, and is passed as a value to lua (using the c_str() method). This feature can be turned off with the command line option -S.
For user defined types, constness is preserved. Thus passing a non constant user defined type to a function that expects constant type generates an type mismatching error.
typedef double real;
Otherwise, real would be interpreted as a user defined type and would not be mapped to Lua numbers.
/* specify the files to be included */
$#include "header1.h" // include first header $#include "header2.h" // include second headerAs illustrated, tolua also accepts comments, using C or C++ convention, inside the package file. Nested C-like comments can also be used.
Also note that files included with $cfile or $hfile don't need to be included using this method, this is done automatically by tolua.
In the following sections, we describe how to specify the C/C++ code we want to bind to Lua. The formats are simplified valid C/C++ statements.
#define NAME [ VALUE ]The value, as showed above, is optional. If such a code is inserted inside the file being processed, tolua generates a code that allows the use of NAME as a Lua global variable that has the corresponding C/C++ constant value. Only numeric constants are accepted.
New on tolua++: All other preprocessor directives are ignored.
For enum's, the general format is:
enum { NAME1 [ = VALUE1 ] , NAME2 [ = VALUE2 ] , ... NAMEn [ = VALUEn ] };Similarly, tolua creates a set of global variables, named NAMEi, with their corresponding values.
[extern] type var;tolua binds such declarations to Lua global variables. Thus, in Lua, we can access the C/C++ variable naturally. If the variable is non constant, we can also assign the variable a new value from Lua. Global variables that represent arrays of value can also be bound to Lua. Arrays can be of any type. The corresponding Lua objects for arrays are Lua tables indexed with numeric values; however, be aware that index 1 in Lua is mapped to index 0 in an C/C++ array. Arrays must be pre dimensioned. For instance:
double v[10];
New on tolua++: External variables can use the tolua_readonly modifier (see Additional Features)
type funcname (type1 par1[, type2 par2[,...typeN parN]]);The returned type can be void, meaning no value is returned. A function can also have no parameter. In that case, void may be specified in the place of the list of parameters. The parameter types must follow the rules already posted. tolua creates a Lua function binding the C/C++ function. When calling a function from Lua, the parameter types must match the corresponding C/C++ types, otherwise, tolua generates an error and reports which parameter is wrongly specified. If a parameter name is omitted, tolua names it automatically, but its type should be a basic type or user type previously used.
The arrays must be pre dimensioned. For instance:
void func (double a[3]);
is a valid function declaration for tolua and calling this function from Lua would be done by, for instance:
p = {1.0,1.5,8.6}
func (p)
The array dimension need not be a constant expression; the dimension can also be specified by any expression that can be evaluated in run time. For instance:
void func (int n, int m, double image[n*m]);
is also valid since the expression n*m is valid in the binding function scope. However, be aware that tolua uses dynamic allocation for binding this function, what can degrade the performance.
Despite the dimension specification, it is important to know that all arrays passed to the actual C/C++ function are in the local scope of the binding function. So, if the C/C++ function being called needs to hold the array pointer for later use, the binding code will not work properly.
void func (int a);
void func (double a);
represent two different functions in C++, they are the same function for tolua, because both int and double are mapped to the same Lua type: number.
Another tricky situation occurs when expecting pointers. Suppose:
void func (char* s); void func (void* p); void func (Object1* ptr); void func (Object2* prt);Although these four functions represent different functions in C++, a Lua statement like:
func(nil)matches all of them.
It is important to know that tolua decides which function will be called in run-time, trying to match each provided function. tolua first tries to call the last specified function; if it fails, tolua then tries the previous one. This process is repeated until one function matches the calling code or the first function is reached. For that reason, the mismatching error message, when it occurs, is based on the first function specification. When performance is important, we can specify the most used function as the last one, because it will be tried first.
tolua allows the use of overloaded functions in C, see Renaming for details.
type funcname (..., typeN-1 parN-1 [= valueN-1], typeN parN [= valueN]);
toLua implements this feature without using any C++ mechanism; so, it can be used also to bind C functions.
We can also specify default values for the elements of an array (there is no way to specify a default value for the array itself, though). For instance:
void func (int a[5]=0);
sets the default element values to zero, thus the function can be called from Lua with an uninitialized table.
For Lua object types (lua_Object), tolua defines a constant that can be used to specify nil as default value:
void func (lua_Object lo = TOLUA_NIL);
New on tolua++: C++ class constructors are valid as default parameters, but only when the parameter is a value and not a reference. For example:
void set_color(Color& color = Color(0,0,0));
This will work, whereas:
void set_color(const Color& color = Color(0,0,0));
Will probably crash, since the generated bind function will be taking a reference to a temporary object and then use it later. This is a known bug, and will be fixed in a future release.
For instance, consider a C function that swaps two values:
void swap (double* x, double* y);
or
void swap (double& x, double& y);
If such a function is declared in the package file, tolua binds it as a function receiving two numbers as input and returning two numbers. So, a valid Lua code would be:
x,y = swap(x,y)
If the input values are not used, the use of default parameter value allows calling the function from Lua without specifying them:
void getBox (double* xmin=0, double* xmax=0, double* ymin=0, double* ymax=0);
In Lua:
xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax = getBox()
With user defined types, we would have for instance:
void update (Point** p);
or
void update (Point*& p);
typedef struct [name] { type1 fieldname1; type2 fieldname2; ... typeN fieldnameN; } typename;If such a code is inserted in the package file being processed, tolua allows any variable that holds an object of type typename to access any listed field indexing the variable by the field name. For instance, if var holds a such object, var.fieldnamei accesses the field named fieldnamei.
Fields that represent arrays of values can also be mapped:
typedef struct {
int x[10];
int y[10];
} Example;
class classname : public basename {
/* class definition */
};
In this case, the definition of basename needs to appear before classname if the inheritance properties are to be taken advantage of from lua.
For each bound class, tolua creates a Lua table and stores it at a variable which name is the name of the C++ class. This tables may contain other tables that represent other tables, the way C++ classes may contain other classes and structs. Static exported fields are accessed by indexing this table with the field names (similar to struct fields). Static methods are also called using this table, with a colon. Non static exported fields are accessed by indexing the variable that holds the object. Class methods follow the format of the function declaration showed above. They can be accessed from Lua code using the conventional way Lua uses to call methods, applied of course to a variable that holds the appropriate object or to the class table, for static methods.
There are a few special methods that are also supported by tolua. Constructors are called as static methods, named new or new_local (on tolua++). Destructors are called as a conventional method called delete.
Note that tolua does support overload. This applies even for constructors. Also note that the virtual keyword has no effect in the package file.
The following code exemplifies class definitions that can be interpreted by tolua.
class Point { static int n; // represents the total number of created Points static int get_n(); // static method double x; // represents the x coordinate double y; // represents the y coordinate
static char* className (void); // returns the name of the class
Point (void); // constructor 1 Point (double px, double py); // constructor 2 ~Point (void); // destructor
Point add (Point& other); // add points, returning another one };
class ColorPoint : public Color { int red; // red color component [0 - 255] int green; // green color component [0 - 255] int blue; // blue color component [0 - 255]
ColorPoint (double px, double py, int r, int g, int b); };If this segment of code is processed by tolua, we would be able to write the following Lua statements:
p1 = Point:new(0.0,1.0) p2 = ColorPoint:new(1.5,2.2,0,0,255) print(Point.n) -- would print 2 print(Point:get_n()) -- would also print 2 p3 = p1:add(p2) local p4 = ColorPoint:new_local() print(p3.x,p3.y) -- would print 1.5 and 3.2 print(p2.red,p2.green,p2.blue) -- would print 0, 0, and 255 print( p1:delete() -- call destructor p2:delete() -- call destructorNote that we can only explicitly delete objects that we explicitly create. In the example above, the point p3 will be garbage-collected by tolua automatically; we cannot delete it.
New on tolua++: Also note that p4 is created with the new_local constructor, wich also leaves the object to be deleted by the garbaje collector, and it should not be deleted using delete. For each constructor on the pkg, one new and new_local is created.
Of course, we need to specify only the methods and members we want to access from Lua. Sometimes, it will be necessary to declare a class with no member or method just for the sake of not breaking a chain of inheritances.
operator+ operator- operator* operator/ operator< operator>= operator== operator[]For the relational operators, toLua also automatically converts a returned 0 value into nil, so false in C becomes false in Lua.
As an example, suppose that in the code above, instead of having:
Point add (Point& other); // add points, returning another onewe had:
Point operator+ (Point& other); // add points, returning another oneIn that case, in Lua, we could simply write:
p3 = p1 + p2The indexing operator (operator[]) when receiving a numeric parameter can also be exported to Lua. In this case, tolua accepts reference as returned value, even for basic types. Then if a reference is returned, from Lua, the programmer can either get or set the value. If the returned value is not a reference, the programmer can only get the value. An example may clarify: suppose we have a vector class and bind the following operator:
double& operator[] (int index);In this case, in Lua, we would be able to write: value = myVector[i] and also myVector[i] = value, wich updates the C++ object. However, if the bound operator was:
double operator[] (int index);we would only be able to write: value = myVector[i].
Free functions (i.e., not class members) that overload operators are not supported.
class vector { TEMPLATE_BIND(T, int, string, Vector3D, double) void clear(); int size() const; const T& operator[](int index) const; T& operator[](int index); void push_back(T val); vector(); ~vector(); };This code will create 4 versions of the object vector, one for each type specified on the TEMPLATE_BIND parameters, each replacing the macro T (specified as the first argument of TEMPLATE_BIND). Thus, the functions operator[], &operator[] and push_back will have different signatures on each version of the object. The objects will be recognized as vector<type> on further declarations, and the name of the table on Lua will be vector_type_. Thus, the following Lua code could be used:
string_vector = vector_string_:new_local() string_vector:push_back("hello") string_vector:push_back("world") print(string_vector[0].." "..string_vector[1])Similarily, a template with more than 1 macro could be bound, and it could also inherit from another template:
class hash_map : public map<K,V> { TEMPLATE_BIND(K V, int string, string vector<double>) V get_element(K key); void set_element(K key, V value); hash_map(); ~hash_map(); };In this example, one of the objects has another template as one of its types, so it will be recognized as hash_map<string,vector<double> > while its constructor will be on the Lua table hash_map_string_vector_double___ (see Type Renaming for a better way to access these objects).
Note that due to the complexity in the definition of some templates, you should be careful on how you declare them. For example, if you create an object with type hash_map<string,vector<double> > and then declare a variable with type hash_map<string, vector<double> > (note the space between string and vector), the type of the variable will not be recognized. The safest way is to declare a typedef, and use that to use each type (this is also a common practice on C++ programming). For example, using the previous declaration of vector:
typedef vectorTEMPLATE_BIND can be used with more than one parenthesis to open and close, in order to be valid as a macro inside a regular .h file. The TEMPLATE_BIND macro is declared on tolua.h as:VectorInt; VectorInt variable;
#define TEMPLATE_BIND(x)
Also, the parameters can have double quotes. Thus, the following uses are valid:
TEMPLATE_BIND((T, int, float)) // to be used inside a real header file TEMPLATE_BIND("K V", "string string", int double)Function templates are not supported on this version.
module name
{
... // constant, variable, and function
declarations
}
Thus, if we bound the following module declaration:
module mod
{
#define N
extern int var;
int func (...):
}
In Lua we would be able to access such features by indexing the module: mod.N, mod.var, mod.func.
extern int cvar @ lvar;
#define CNAME @ LNAME
enum {
CITEM1 @ LITEM1,
CITEM2 @ LITEM2,
...
};
void cfunc @ lfunc (...);
class T
{
double cfield @ lfield;
void cmeth @ lmeth (...);
...
};
In such a case, the global variable cvar would be identified in Lua by lvar, the constant CNAME by LNAME, and so on. Note that class cannot be renamed, because they represent types in C.
This renaming feature allows function overload in C, because we can choose to export two different C functions with a same Lua name:
void glVertex3d @ glVertex (double x, double y, double z=0.0);
void glVertexdv @ glVertex (double v[3]=0.0);
$renaming real_name @ new_name
The parameters to renaming can be Lua patterns. For example:
$renaming ^_+ @ $renaming hash_map<string,vector<double> > @ StringHashThe first example will remove all underscores at the beginning of all types, the second will rename the template type hash_map<string,vector<double> > to StringHash. Once renamed, the Lua table for each type can be accessed only by their new name, for example: StringHash:new()
float x,y,z;
will create 3 different variables of type float. Make sure you don't leave any spaces between the commas, as that will raise a parse error.
class Widget { tolua_readonly string name; };This feature could be used to 'hack' the support for other unsuported things like operator->. Consider this example pkg file:
$hfile "node.h" $#define __operator_arrow operator->() $#define __get_name get_name()And on the file node.h:
template class<T> class Node { // tolua_export private: string name; T* value; public: T* operator->() {return value;}; string get_name() {return name;}; // tolua_begin Node* next; Node* prev; void set_name(string p_name) {name = p_name;}; #if 0 tolua_readonly __operator_arrow @ p; tolua_readonly __get_name @ name; TEMPLATE_BIND(T, Vector3D) #endif Node(); }; // tolua_endWhile not a pretty thing to do to a header file, this acomplishes a number of things:
node = Node_Vector3D_:new_local() -- do something with the node here -- print("node name is "..node.name) print("node value is ".. node.p.x ..", ".. node.p.y ..", ".. node.p.z)Since tolua ignores all preprocessor directives (except for #define), node.h remains a valid C++ header file, and also a valid source for tolua, eliminating the need to maintain 2 different files, even for objects with unusual features such as these ones.
The ability to rename functions as variables might be expanded on future versions.
obj = ClassName:new()
obj.myfield = 1 -- even though "myfield" does not represent a field of ClassNameSuch a construction is possible because, if needed, tolua automatically creates a Lua table and associates it with the object. So that, the object can store additional fields not mapped to C/C++, but actually stored in the conjugate table. The Lua programmer accesses the C/C++ features and these additional fields in an uniform way. Note that, in fact, these additional fields overwrite C/C++ fields or methods when the names are the same.
module tolua
{
void tolua_using @ using (lua_Table module);
char* tolua_type @ type (lua_Object lo);
void tolua_foreach @ foreach (lua_Object lo, lua_Function
f);
void tolua_class @ class (lua_Table derived, lua_Table base=TOLUA_NIL);
void tolua_instance @ instance (lua_Table instance, lua_Table
classobj);
lua_Object tolua_base @ base (lua_Object lo);
}
tolua.using(tolua)
all tolua utility functions are mapped to the global environment.
-- define a Point class
classPoint = { x=0, y=0 }
tolua.class(classPoint) -- set as a class
-- define print method
function classPoint:print ()
print(self.x,self.y)
end
-- define add method
function classPoint:add (p2)
return Point{x=self.x+p2.x,y=self.y+p2.y}
end
-- define a Point constructor
function Point (p)
tolua.instance(p,classPoint) -- set as an instance
of classPoint
return p end
-- define a Color Point class
classColorPoint = { color = 'black' }
tolua.class(classColorPoint,classPoint) -- set as class inheriting
from classPoint
-- define class methods
function classColorPoint:print ()
print(self.x,self.y,self.color)
end
-- define Color Point constructor
function ColorPoint (p)
tolua.instance(p,classColorPoint) -- set as an instance
of classColorPoint
return p
end
-- Some valid codes would then be
p = Point{x=1}
q = ColorPoint{x=2,y=3,color=2}
r = p:add(q)
r:print() --> would print "3 3"
$[
embedded Lua code
...
$]
As an example consider the following .pkg excerpt:
/* Bind a Point class */
class Point
{
Point (int x, int y);
~Point ();
void print ();
...
} CPoint;
$[
-- Create a Point constructor
function Point (self)
local cobj = CPoint:new(self.x or 0, self.y or 0)
tolua.takeownership(cobj)
return cobj
end
$]
Binding such a code would allow us to write the following Lua code:
p = Point{ x=2, y=3 }
p:print()
...
Retrieving Objects
Users switching from tolua v4 should know that tolua++ stores the objects as void** on Lua, so when retrieving an object from the luastate using lua_touserdata, the pointer should be dereferenced. The library function tolua_tousertype should work as expected. Example:
lua_pushglobal(lua_state, "get_Object"); lua_call(lua_state, 0, 1); // calling a function that returns an Object Object *new_object = (Object*)(*lua_touserdata(lua_state, -1)); or Object *new_object = (Object*)tolua_tousertype(lua_state, -1);C++ Strings
tolua++ binds the c++ type std::string as a basic type, passing it to Lua as a regular string (using the method c_str()). This feature can be turned off with the command line option -S.
Operators
The list of supported operators has changed, see Binding classes and methods for more information.
operator[] index
Users switching from tolua v5 should know that tolua 5 substracts 1 from the index on operator[] functions, for compatibility with lua's method for indexing arrays (1 is the first element). This feature is turned off by default on tolua++ (making it compatible with tolua 4). It can be turned back on with the command line option -1
C++ Strings
(see c++ strings on tolua 4 below)
While working at NGD Studios, Ariel Manzur made some changes to tolua4 for their
game engine. After the release of tolua5, having left NGD, enough changes were
made to tolua to justify a separate release (with Waldemar's blessing :-)